Tracking cells for a memory system

ABSTRACT

Tracking cells are used in a memory system to improve the read process. The tracking cells can provide an indication of the quality of the data and can be used as part of a data recovery operation if there is an error. The tracking cells provide a means to adjust the read parameters to optimum levels in order to reflect the current conditions of the memory system. Additionally, some memory systems that use multi-state memory cells will apply rotation data schemes to minimize wear. The rotation scheme can be encoded in the tracking cells based on the states of multiple tracking cells, which is decoded upon reading.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a divisional of co-pending, commonly assigned U.S.patent application Ser. No. 11/752,008, filed May 22, 2007, published onSep. 20, 2007 as US2007/0217259, (docket no. SAND-1001US1), which inturn is a continuation of commonly assigned U.S. patent application Ser.No. 10/461,244, filed Jun. 13, 2003 (docket no. SAND-1001US0), andissued on Jun. 26, 2007 as U.S. Pat. No. 7,237,074, both of which areincorporated herein by reference.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

1. Field of the Invention

The present invention is directed to technology for reading memorydevices.

2. Description of the Related Art

Semiconductor memory devices have become more popular for use in variouselectronic devices. For example, non-volatile semiconductor memory isused in cellular telephones, digital cameras, personal digitalassistants, mobile computing devices, non-mobile computing devices andother devices. Electrical Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory(EEPROM) and flash memory are among the most popular non-volatilesemiconductor memories.

Both EEPROM and flash memory utilize a floating gate that is positionedabove and insulated from a channel region in a semiconductor substrate.The floating gate is positioned between source and drain regions. Acontrol gate is provided over and insulated from the floating gate. Thethreshold voltage of the transistors is controlled by the amount ofcharge that is retained on the floating gate. That is, the minimumamount of voltage that must be applied to the control gate before thetransistor is turned on to permit conduction between its source anddrain is controlled by the level of charge on the floating gate.

Many EEPROMs and flash memories have a floating gate that is used tostore two ranges of charges and, therefore, the memory cell can beprogrammed/erased between two states. Such memory cells store one bit ofdata. Other EEPROMs and flash memory cells store multiple ranges ofcharge and, therefore, such memory cells can be programmed to multiplestates. Such memory cells store multiple bits of data. The size andparameters of the threshold voltage window depends on the devicecharacteristics, operating conditions and history.

Conventional EEPROMs and flash memories can experience endurance relatedstress each time the device goes through an erase and program cycle. Theendurance of a flash memory is its ability to withstand a given numberof program and erase cycles. With use, defects tend to build up in thememory device and may eventually render the device unreliable. Onephysical phenomenon limiting the endurance of prior flash memory devicesis the trapping of electrons in the active dielectric between thefloating gate and the substrate. During programming, electrons areinjected from the substrate to the floating gate through the dielectric.Similarly, during erasing, electrons are extracted from the floatinggate through the dielectric. In both cases, electrons can be trapped bythe dielectric. The trapped electrons oppose the applied electric fieldand subsequent program/erase cycles, thereby causing the programmedthreshold voltage to shift to a lower value and the erased thresholdvoltage to shift to a higher value. This can be seen in a gradualclosure of the voltage window between the programmed and erased states.If program/erase cycling is continued, the device may eventuallyexperience catastrophic failure. This problem is even more critical ifmulti-state memory is implemented, since more accurate placement of thethreshold voltage is demanded.

A second problem pertains to charge retention on the floating gate. Forexample, negative charge on the floating gate tends to diminish somewhatthrough leakage over a period of time. This causes the threshold voltageto shift to a lower value over time. Over the lifetime of the device,the threshold voltage may shift as much as one volt or more. In amulti-state device, this could shift the memory cell by one or twostates.

A third problem is that the program/erase cycles may not be performedevenly for the cells in the memory device. For example, it is notuncommon that a repetitive pattern may be programmed continuously into aset of memory cells. Therefore, some cells will constantly be programmedand erased while other cells will never or rarely be programmed. Suchuneven programming and erasing causes non-uniform stress conditions forthe cells in a particular sector. Non-uniformity of the program/erasecycling histories can result in a wider distribution of thresholdvoltages for any particular given state. In addition to widening thethreshold distributions, certain cells may reach closure of the voltagewindow, device failure or charge retention issues earlier than others.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

The present invention, roughly described, pertains to tracking cellsused to improve the read process of a memory system. In differentembodiments, the tracking cells can be used as part of a data recoveryoperation, to provide an alarm indicating quality issues with the dataand/or as a means to store an indication of how data is encoded in thememory. In one embodiment, the tracking cells are only used for datarecovery if an Error Correction Code (“ECC”) process is unable tocorrect an error in the data.

One embodiment of the present invention includes reading data stored ina memory system that includes a set of storage elements. The storageelements include data storage elements and tracking storage elements.The data storage elements are capable of storing rotatably encoded datain a set of multiple states. The tracking storage elements are read andcategorized into tracking states. The tracking states correspond to asubset of the multiple states utilized by the data storage elements. Arotation scheme (i.e. the particular rotation encoding of choice) isdetermined based on the categorizing of the tracking storage elements.Some or all of the data storage elements are read using the determinedrotation scheme. In one example of an implementation, the determining ofthe rotation scheme includes combining categorizations of two or morenon-redundant tracking storage elements to create an identifier that iscombined with other non-redundant identifiers to indicate the rotationscheme.

Another embodiment of the present invention includes performing multipleread operations for the tracking cells and recording error informationduring those read operations. A quality gauge is determined based on therecorded error information. If the quality gauge satisfies predeterminedcriteria, then a predetermined response is performed. The quality gaugecan include an alarm if a predetermined number of tracking storageelements have errors, if a predetermined number of tracking cells have athreshold voltage that varies from an expected value by at least apredetermined value, or if a progressive set of error thresholds (e.g.different error levels over time) are exceeded. Examples of responsesinclude aborting a read process, changing the parameters of an ECCoperation and/or commencing a data recovery operation.

Some embodiments of the present invention include performing multipleread operations for each state of a subset of storage element states.The storage element states represent different data values formulti-state storage elements in the memory system. A current set ofcompare values for distinguishing each of the storage element states isthen determined based on the results of the multiple read operations.One example of an implementation includes performing read operations ona first set of tracking storage elements for multiple threshold voltagelevels associated with a first state, determining threshold voltagelevels for the first set of tracking storage elements based on the stepof performing read operations on the first set of the storage elements,performing read operations on a second set of tracking storage elementsfor multiple threshold voltage levels associated with a second state,determining threshold voltage levels for the second set of trackingstorage elements based on the step of performing read operations on thesecond set of tracking storage elements, and modifying existing readcompare values based on the determined threshold voltage levels for thefirst and the second states, with the first state and the second statenot being adjacent to each other.

The various read operations can be in response to a host devicerequesting data or as part of an internal operation (e.g. copy data toanother location, garbage collection, etc.).

One implementation of the present invention includes a set of storageelements and a controller circuit. The storage elements includemulti-state data storage elements and tracking storage elements. Thetracking storage elements use a subset of the multiple states used bythe data storage elements. The controller circuit is in communicationwith the tracking storage elements and is capable of causing aperformance of the functions described herein. The memory system can bean EEPROM memory system, a flash memory system or other suitable typesof memory systems. In one implementation, the controller circuitincludes customized hardware for accomplishing the described functions.In another implementation, the controller is programmed to perform thedescribed functions. For example, software/firmware can be stored on oneor more processor readable storage media (e.g., flash memory, EEPROM,DRAM, and other mediums) in order to program the controller.

In one exemplar implementation, the data storage elements utilize eightthreshold voltage states (state 0, state 1, state 2, state 3, state 4,state 5, state 6 and state 7) and the tracking storage elements usestates 1 and state 6. Tracking storage elements are grouped as pairs toestablish a bit of a rotation code. Three bits establish the rotationcode. Multiple sets of three pairs (e.g. four sets) can be used forredundancy.

These and other objects and advantages of the present invention willappear more clearly from the following description in which thepreferred embodiment of the invention has been set forth in conjunctionwith the drawings.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 is a block diagram of a flash memory system utilizing oneembodiment of the present invention.

FIG. 2 is a plan view of one embodiment of a portion of the memory cellarray of the system of FIG. 1.

FIG. 3 is a partial cross-sectional view of the memory cell array ofFIG. 2 taken at section A-A.

FIG. 4 is an electrical equivalent circuit to the structure of FIG. 3.

FIG. 5 is a table providing example voltages for one way to operate thememory cells.

FIG. 6 depicts a state space for one embodiment of the presentinvention.

FIG. 7 depicts an example of logical state assignments.

FIG. 8 depicts an example of physical to logical state assignment fordifferent rotation encoding schemes.

FIG. 9 is a data map depicting user data and overhead data associatedwith one embodiment of the present invention.

FIG. 10 describes an example of assignments of tracking cell datapatterns to rotation schemes.

FIG. 11 is a flow chart describing one embodiment of a method forwriting data.

FIG. 12 is a flow chart describing one embodiment of a method forreading data.

FIG. 13 is a table that can be used to determine a state of a cellduring a read operation.

FIG. 14 is a flow chart describing one embodiment of a method fordetermining a rotation scheme.

FIG. 15 is a flow chart describing one embodiment of a method forprocessing tracking cells.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION I. Memory System

An example memory system incorporating the various aspects of thepresent invention is generally illustrated in the block diagram ofFIG. 1. Architectures other than that of FIG. 1 can also be used withthe present invention. A large number of individually addressable memorycells 11 are arranged in an array of rows and columns. Bit lines, whichextend along columns of array 11, are electrically connected with bitline decoder, driver and sense amplifiers circuit 13 through lines 15.Word lines, which extend along rows of array 11, are electricallyconnected through lines 17 to word line decoders and drivers circuit 19.Steering gates, which extend along columns of memory cells in array 11,are electrically connected to steering gate decoders and drivers circuit21 through lines 23. Each of the circuits 13, 19 and 21 receivesaddresses from controller 27 via bus 25. The decoder and drivingcircuits 13,19 and 21 are also connected to controller 27 overrespective control and status signal lines 29, 31 and 33. Voltagesapplied to the steering gates and bit lines are coordinated through bus22 that interconnects the controller and driver circuits 13 and 21.

Controller 27 is connectable through lines 35 to a host device (notshown). The host may be a personal computer, notebook computer, handhelddevice, digital camera, audio player, cellular telephone or variousother devices. The memory system of FIG. 1 can be implemented in a cardaccording to one of several existing physical and electrical standards,such as one from the PCMCIA, the CompactFlash™ Association, the MMC™Association, Smart Media, Secure Digital™, Memory Stick and others. Whenin a card format, the lines 35 terminate in a connector on the cardwhich interfaces with a complementary connector of the host device.Alternatively, the memory system of FIG. 1 can be embedded in the hostdevice. In yet another alternative, controller 27 can be embedded in thehost device while the other components of the memory system are on aremovable card. In other embodiments, the memory system can be inpackaging other than a card. For example, the memory system can be inone or more integrated circuits, or one or more circuit boards or otherpackages.

Decoder and driver circuits 13, 19 and 21 generate appropriate voltagesin their respective lines of array 11, as addressed over the bus 25,according to control signals in respective control and status lines 29,31 and 33 to execute programming, reading and erasing functions. Statussignals, including voltage levels and other array parameters, areprovided by array 11 to controller 27 over the same control and statuslines 29, 31 and 33. A plurality of sense amplifiers within the circuit13 receive current or voltage levels that are indicative of the statesof addressed memory cells within array 11. The sense amplifiers providecontroller 27 with information about the states of the memory cells overlines 41 during a read operation. A large number of sense amplifiers areusually used in order to be able to read the states of a large number ofmemory cells in parallel.

II. Memory Cell

FIG. 2 is a plan view of a first embodiment of a portion of memory array11.

FIG. 3 is a partial cross-sectional view of the memory array taken atSection A-A. The substrate and conductive elements are illustrated withlittle detail of dielectric layers that exist therebetween. Thissimplifies the figures, however, it will be understood that appropriateoxide layers are to be included between the conductive layersthemselves, and the conductive layers and the substrate.

A silicon substrate 45 includes a planar top surface 47. Elongateddiffusions 49, 51 and 53 are formed into the substrate 45 through thesurface 47 by an initial ion implantation and subsequent diffusion.Elongated diffusions 49, 51 and 53 serve as sources and drains of thememory cells. In order to provide a convention for this description, thediffusions are shown to be spaced apart in a first “x” direction, withlengths extending in a second “y” direction. These “x” and “y”directions are essentially orthogonal with each other. A number offloating gates are included across the substrate surface 47, withsuitable gate dielectric therebetween, in an array of rows and columns.One row of floating gates 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60 is adjacent to andparallel with another row of floating gates 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67. Acolumn of floating gates 69, 55, 62, 71 and 73 is adjacent to andparallel with a column of floating gates 75, 56, 63, 77 and 79. Thefloating gates are formed from a first layer of conductively dopedpolycrystalline silicon (“polysilicon”) that is deposited over thesurface and then separated by etching using one or more masking stepsinto the individual floating gates.

Bit line decoder and driver circuit 13 (See FIG. 1) is connected throughlines 15 with all of the bit line source/drain diffusions of the array,including the diffusions 49, 51 and 53 of FIGS. 2 and 3. The sources anddrains of columns of individual memory cells are connected to properoperating voltages for either reading or programming in response toaddresses supplied over bus 25 and control signals over the lines 29.

The structure of FIGS. 2 and 3 uses one steering gate for every twocolumns of floating gates. Steering gates 81, 83 and 85 are elongated inthe “y” direction and have a width in the “x” direction that extendsacross two adjacent columns of floating gates and a source/draindiffusion that is positioned in between them. The space between any twoof the steering gates is at least as great as the space in the “x”direction between adjacent columns of floating gates that are overlaidby the two steering gates, in order to allow a gate to be later formedat the substrate in this space. The steering gates are formed by etchinga second layer of conductively doped polysilicon that is deposited overthe entire surface over the first polysilicon layer and an appropriateinter-polysilicon layer dielectric. Steering gate decoder and drivercircuit 21 (see FIG. 1) connects though lines 23 to all the steeringgates and is able to individually control their voltages in response toaddresses provided on the bus 25, control signals on the lines 33, anddata from drivers and sense amplifiers 13.

Word lines 91, 92, 93, 94 and 95 of FIGS. 2 and 3 are elongated in the“x” direction and extend over the steering gates with spaces betweenthem in the “y”-direction that places each word line in alignment with arow of floating gates. The word lines are formed by etching a thirdlayer of conductively doped polysilicon that is deposited over theentire surface on top of a dielectric that is first formed over thesecond polysilicon layer and regions exposed between the steering gates.The word lines allow selection of all the memory cells in its row forreading or writing. Select gate decoder and driver circuit 19 (seeFIG. 1) is connected with each word line in order to individually selectone row of the memory array. Individual cells within a selected row arethen enabled for reading or writing by the bit line and steering gatedecoder and driver circuits 13 and 21 (see FIG. 1).

Although the gates in the foregoing structure are preferably made ofdoped polysilicon material, other suitable electrically conductivematerials may be used in place of one or more of the three polysiliconlayers described. The third layer, for example, from which the wordlines and select gates are formed, may be a polycide material, which ispolysilicon with a conductive refractory metal silicide on its top, suchas tungsten, in order to increase its conductivity. Polycides aregenerally not used in place of either the first or second polysiliconlayers because the quality of inter-polycrystalline-silicon oxidesformed from a polycide is usually not satisfactory.

Not shown in FIGS. 2 and 3 are the metal conductor layers. Since thediffusions and polysilicon elements usually have a conductivity that issignificantly less than that of metal, metal conductors are included inseparate layers with connections made to respective metal lines throughany intermediate layers at periodical intervals along the lengths of thepolysilicon elements and diffusions. Since all of the diffusions andpolysilicon elements of the embodiment of FIGS. 2-3 need to beseparately driven, there is typically a one-to-one correspondencebetween the number of these metal lines and the number of diffusions andpolysilicon elements.

FIG. 4 depicts an electrically equivalent circuit to the structure ofFIG. 3, where equivalent elements are identified by the same referencenumbers as in FIGS. 2 and 3, but with a prime (′) added. The illustratedstructure shares the source and drain diffusions with a neighboringstructure. Conduction through the channel in the substrate between theadjacent diffusions 49 and 51 is controlled by different gate elementsin three different regions. A first region to the left (T1-left) has thefloating gate 56 immediately above it and the steering gate 81capacitively coupled with it. A second region to the right (T1-right) iscontrolled in a similar manner by the floating gate 57 and the steeringgate 83. A third region T2, between T1-left and T1-right, is controlledby select gate 99 that is part of word line 92.

The level of conduction of electrons through the channel betweendiffusions 49 and 51 is thus affected by the electric fields imparted bythese different gate elements to their respective channel regions by thevoltages placed on the gates. The voltage on a floating gate isdependent upon the level of net electrical charge it carries plus alldisplacement charge that is capacitively coupled from other gates andnodes. The level of conduction that is permitted through the channelportion under a floating gate is controlled by the voltage on thatfloating gate. The voltage on select gate 99 simply turns the channel onand off to any conduction in order to select individual cells forconnection with their source/drain regions. In one embodiment, anindividual memory cell can be considered as a series connection of threetransistors, one for each of the three different regions (T1-left, T2,T1-Right) of the channel. In other embodiments, each floating gate canbe considered a memory cell.

One of the two floating gates of a single memory cell is selected forprogramming or reading by placing a voltage on the steering gate abovethe other (non-selected) floating gate of the cell that is sufficient tocause the channel region under the other floating gate to becomeadequately conductive no matter what charge (which is related to itsstate) is carried by that other floating gate. When that cell's selecttransistor is turned on by a sufficient voltage applied to its wordline, it is only the selected floating gate that responds to reading orprogramming operations directed to the cell. During a reading of thestate of the one floating gate, current through the cell between itssource and drain is then dependent upon the charge carried by theselected floating gate without regard to the charge on the otherfloating gate. Although the voltage placed on the steering gate over thenon-selected floating gate to render the channel portion under thenon-selected floating gate conductive is also coupled to an adjacentfloating gate of an adjacent cell through the same steering gate, impacton the adjacent cell is avoided by placing proper voltage conditions onthe other elements of the adjacent cell.

The floating gates of the embodiment of FIGS. 2-4 are preferablyprogrammed by placing voltages on its bit lines (source and draindiffusions) and its two steering gates that cause electrons to obtainenough energy in the substrate channel region to be injected across thegate dielectric onto the selected floating gate. A preferred techniquefor this is “source side injection,” described in the U.S. Pat. Nos.5,313,421 and 5,712,180, both of which are incorporated herein byreference in their entirety.

In order to erase the memory cells of the embodiment of FIGS. 2-4, theymay be designed and operated so that electrons are removed from theselected floating gates to either the channel or the select gate of theword line. If erased to the select gate, the dielectric between floatinggate edge 103 and select gate 99 is preferably a thin layer of oxidethat has been grown on the floating gate edge and through whichelectrons tunnel when appropriate voltages are placed on the variouselements of the cell. The same is provided between floating gate edge105 and select gate 99. When designed to be erased to select gate 99,care is taken to make sure that a resulting voltage gradient across thegate dielectric between the select gate and substrate surface 47 remainssufficiently below a breakdown level of that dielectric. This is aconcern because the word line is typically raised to a level in excessof 10 volts and sometimes to 20 volts or more during erase, while othervoltages applied to the cell are usually 5 volts or less. The voltagegradient across the select gate dielectric can be reduced by making itthicker or selected to have a dielectric constant that is higher thannormally used but that can adversely affect operation of the selecttransistor.

If the cells are to be erased to the channel, the embodiment of FIGS.2-4 is modified somewhat. First, the dielectric between select gate 99and the adjacent floating gate edges 103 and 105 is made to be thickerto prevent erasing of the floating gates to the select gate. Second, thethickness of the gate dielectric between an underside of the floatinggates and the substrate surface 47 is made thinner, such as about 100Angstroms, to facilitate electrons tunneling through it. Third, thecells to be simultaneously erased as a block are grouped together alongcolumns or within blocks. In one embodiment, a block is isolated on thesubstrate from other blocks. This is typically done by a triple wellprocess, where an n-well is formed in a p-substrate, and a p-wellcarrying the block of cells is positioned within the n-well thatisolates the block from others. An appropriate erase voltage is thenapplied to the p-wells of the blocks to be erased, while other blocksare not affected.

More details about the structures of FIGS. 1-5 can be found in U.S. Pat.No. 6,151,248, which is incorporated herein by reference in itsentirety. The memory structure of FIGS. 2-4 is one example of a suitablememory cell. Other structures can also be used to implement the presentinvention. For example, one embodiment can use a multi-layer dielectricthat includes a charge storing dielectric.

III. Memory Array Operation

Example operating voltages to program, read and erase the memory cellsof array 11 are provided in the table of FIG. 5. Line (2) pertains tothe operation of the type of cells that are erased to the select gates(word lines), while line (8) shows a modification for operating the typeof cells that are erased to the substrate. In these examples, thesubstrate portion in which the cells are formed contains p-type dopingand the bit line diffusions are of n-type. The substrate is held atground potential throughout these operations.

In line (1) of the FIG. 5 table, the voltage conditions are given for arow that is not selected. The word line of an unselected row is placedat ground potential by driver circuit 19 (FIG. 1). The “X” in thecolumns for the bit lines (diffusions) and steering gates of cells alongan unselected row indicates that the voltages on those elements do notmatter—a “don't care” situation. Since there are no negative voltagesgenerated by any of the circuits 13, 19 and 21 for elements of thearray, in this example, a zero voltage on the select gates of a rowassures that none of the cells along that row are enabled. No currentcan flow through their channels. Programming or reading of other cellsin the same columns of a different row can take place without affectingthe row having a zero voltage on its word line.

The second line (2) of the table provides an example set of voltages forerasing the type of cells designed to be erased to the word line'sselect gate. A high erase voltage V_(E) in a range of 10-25 volts (e.g.20 volts) is applied by driver circuits 19 to all the word lines whosefloating gates are to be erased. This is usually at least one definedblock of cells including all cells in a large number of contiguous rows.However, in applications where it is preferred, fewer or more cells maybe simultaneously erased. The erase block can, alternatively, even belimited to a single row of cells. The steering gates of the cells alongthe one or more selected rows are set to a low voltage by the drivingcircuit 21 (e.g., zero volts) in order to maintain, by the high degreeof capacitive coupling between the steering and floating gates, thevoltage of the floating gates at a low level. The resulting potentialdifference between the floating gates and their respective select gates(word lines) causes electron tunneling through the intermediatedielectric. More information about erasing is found in U.S. Pat. No.5,270,979, incorporated herein by reference.

Lines (3) and (4) in the table of FIG. 5 provide example voltages forreading the state of the two floating gates of a memory cell: line (3)for the left floating gate and line (4) for the right floating gate. Ineach case, the cell is enabled by the select gate being raised to avoltage V_(sR) sufficient to turn on the cell's select transistor toenable current to flow through the channel. This voltage is typicallyone volt higher than the threshold of the select transistor.

When reading the voltage state of one floating gate, the steering gateover the floating gate being read has a voltage V_(M) applied to it andthe steering gate over the other floating gate is raised to V_(BR), asshown in lines (3) and (4) of the table of FIG. 5. The voltage V_(BR) ismade to be high enough (e.g., 8 volts) to render the cell's channelportion under the non-selected floating gate sufficiently conductive, nomatter what the programmed state of the non-selected floating gate. Toread the state of the selected floating gate, the voltage V_(M) isstepped through multiple voltages (described below) during the readingstep, and its value when the cell current passes through a definedthreshold is detected by the sense amplifiers within circuit 13.

Example voltages for programming one floating gate of a dual floatinggate cell are given in lines (5) and (6) of the table of FIG. 5. Inorder to select the cell for operation, the select gate is raisedsufficiently to turn on the cell's select transistor. The voltage V_(SP)may be different from the voltage V_(SR) used during reading in order tooptimize the source side injection programming speed. An example isV_(SP)=2.2 volts when the threshold of the select transistor is onevolt. The bit line diffusion on the same side of the cell as thefloating gate selected to be programmed is raised to a maximum bit linevoltage (e.g., 5 volts) during the programming operation. This voltageis made high enough to enable a sufficient field to be built up acrossthe gap between the floating and select gate channels to obtain sourceside hot electron programming. The bit line diffusion on the same sideof the cell as the non-selected floating gate is biased at or near zerovolts during programming.

The steering gate over the non-selected floating gate is raised to avoltage V_(BP) that is sufficient to render the channel region under thenon-selected floating gate sufficiently conductive (e.g. V_(BP)=8 volts)in order to pose no interference to programming of the target floatinggate, regardless of what floating gate voltage exists on thenon-selected floating gate, within a programming window range offloating gate voltages. A voltage Vp is applied to the steering gateover the selected floating gate with a level that drives the selectedfloating gate to a voltage that assists in creating the desired fieldconditions in the channel below it for hot electron programming. Forexample, the voltage Vp can be within the range of 5-12 volts. Thisvoltage may vary during the programming operation. Typically, theappropriate set of programming voltages is first applied to an erasedcell, followed by the appropriate set of reading voltages, and, if thereading step does not indicate that the selected floating gate has beenprogrammed to the desired voltage state, which may be the programmingstate for binary storage or one of the variable storage states formulti-level storage, programming voltages are again applied which may inpart be different from the earlier set.

Line (7) of the table of FIG. 5 shows voltages that are applied to thosecells within a row selected for programming that are themselves not tobe programmed. For example, the number of cells programmed at the sametime within one row of a segmented portion of an array are spacedalternately along the row with other cells in between them that are notbeing programmed. It is these other cells not being programmed thatreceive the voltages of line (7) of the table of FIG. 5. The opposingbit line diffusions are maintained at the same voltage in order toprevent any current from flowing in the channel (e.g., both at zero orboth at 5 volts). As with the notation used in line (1), the “x”indicates that the voltages on the steering gates of these cells are adon't care.

In the case of memory arrays designed to be erased to the substrate,erase voltage conditions of line (8) are applied instead of those ofline (2). Both the p-well containing a block of cells to be erased andits surrounding n-well are raised to the erase voltage V_(E), within anexample range of 10-25 volts (e.g. 20 volts preferred). During readingand programming such cells, their wells are held at ground potential. Apositive voltage V_(SE) is preferably applied to the select gates duringerase in order to reduce the voltage applied across the select gatedielectric, since an excessive voltage differential between thesubstrate and select gate can damage the dielectric material or cause itto be made thicker than otherwise desirable for operation of the cells.Since such a voltage is partially coupled from the select gates to theadjoining floating gates sought to be erased, it cannot be too high orelse the voltage differential between the floating gates and thesubstrate channel, which is made high to effect the erase, is reducedtoo far. An example range of V_(SE) is 3-12 volts, depending upon thelevel of V_(E). V_(SE)=10 volts is preferred when V_(E)=20 volts.

The values provided in FIG. 5 are one set of examples. Those skilled inthe art will be able to use other suitable values and methodologies foroperating the memory system.

IV. Tracking Cells

As described above, the floating gates can store multiple levels orranges of charge, therefore, providing for multiple states. In oneexample, a floating gate stores eight target ranges of charge;therefore, providing for eight states. Such floating gate stores threebits of data. FIG. 6 graphically depicts an exemplar state space for afloating gate that can store eight states. FIG. 6 shows eight physicalstates: P0, P1, P2, P3, P4, P5, P6 and P7. For example purposes, thevertical axis in FIG. 6 is for threshold voltage in millivolts. However,depending on the implementation, other units may be used. For each ofthe physical states, FIG. 6 shows the range or distribution of thresholdvoltage levels, represented by a bell shaped curve. The top (or rightmost point) of the bell curve is typically the center of the state. Forexample, state P1 has the center of the state at 1,000 mV, a lowerboundary at 800 mV and an upper boundary at 1,200 mV. The areas betweenthe states are known as state-to-state threshold margins. There areseven threshold margins, one between each of the sets of neighboringstates. For example, there is a threshold margin between neighboringstates P1 and P2. Note that FIG. 6 shows states P1-P7 as being positivevoltages while P0 includes negative voltages. In other embodiments, moreor fewer states can be positive or negative. In addition, the voltagerange from 0 to 4,900 mV can be different in various embodiments due tothe particular characteristics and conditions of the memory array.

A floating gate storing eight states can store three bits worth of data.Thus, there are eight logical states. In one embodiment, these logicalstates are assigned to the physical states using a gray code assignmentso that if the threshold voltage of a floating gate erroneously shiftsto its neighboring physical state, only one bit will be affected. FIG. 7provides a table depicting a gray code example assignment of the binarydata to logical states. In other embodiments, a non-gray code assignmentcan also be used. Each logical state is assigned to a physical state.However, the assignment of logical states to physical states can berotated.

FIG. 8 is a table showing eight different rotation schemes for theassignment of logical states to physical states. For example, inrotation 0, physical state P0 stores logical state L0 (e.g. binary data000), physical state P1 stores logical state L0 (e.g. binary data 001),etc. In rotation 1, physical P0 stores logical state L7 (e.g. binary100), physical state P1 stores logical L0 (e.g. binary data 000), etc.Thus, there are eight different rotation schemes that can be used whenprogramming. In one embodiment of the present invention, each time asector is programmed, that sector will first be erased and thenprogrammed with one of the eight rotation schemes. In subsequentprogram/erase cycles the sector will be programmed with a differentrotation scheme. In one implementation, the memory device will cyclethrough the rotation states sequentially. In another embodiment, thememory device will randomly (or pseudo-randomly) choose a rotationscheme for each program cycle. Rotating the data, promotes themaintaining, over repeated program-erase cycling, of uniform stressconditions for all cells in a sector, independent of the actual datapattern being programmed into the sector. In regard to the rotation ofdata, note that in one embodiment the same post-erase rotation can bepropagated to all sectors for a given erase-block since all thosesectors operate in history-unison. Note also that if intra-sector wearleveling is inadequate, some form of forced programmed intra-sector wearleveling may be required (e.g. occasional programming to some forcelevel or logical data pattern).

In one implementation, memory array 11 is broken up into sectors. Oneembodiment of how a sector is broken down is depicted in FIG. 9. Thesector includes user data 250 and ECC data 252. The sector typicallyconsists of a subset of cells on one word line, capable of storing 512bytes of user data. Other definitions of a sector can also be used withthe present invention. The sector also includes tracking cells 254 andheader information 256 (not directly dictated by the user). The headerinformation includes address information, bit and/or sector mappingrelated information and counts of the number of writes to the sector.Other information can also be stored in the header. Examples of trackingcells can be found in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,172,338, 6,222,762, and6,538,922; all of which are incorporated herein by reference in theirentirety. The tracking cells are used to reliably establish optimaldiscrimination points for each of the various states of charge in thefloating gates. In the embodiment depicted in FIG. 9, the sectorincludes 24 tracking cells. The tracking cells are grouped into pairsand three pairs are then grouped into a set. In one embodiment, eachpair includes a pair of floating gates within the same sector, withfloating gates as described above with respect to FIGS. 2-4. FIG. 9shows four sets of tracking cells: set 260, set 262, set 264 and set266. In one embodiment, the sets are redundant copies of the sameinformation.

In one embodiment, the tracking cells only store data in either of twostates. For example, FIG. 9 shows each tracking cell storing data inphysical state P1 or physical state P6. In other embodiments, otherstates can be used. In many embodiments, less than all of the states areused. For example, FIG. 6 shows a memory state space with eight states.Thus, the present invention will use less than eight states for thetracking cells. One advantage of using a subset of states is that thestates that are used (the tracking cell states) can be separated withone or more states between them. The consideration for selecting statesP1 and P6 are that they are separated as far as possible in thresholdvoltage level to give the largest baseline while avoiding the two endstates (state P0 and state P7) which may have different thresholdvoltage distribution statistics because of different associatedoperating conditions or requirements. For example, state P0 may followstatistics of the erase operation, as opposed to that of dataprogramming. The potential for relaxed margins in the case of the mostheavily programmed state (state P7) could result in differences/offsetsin distribution relative to the intermediate states P1-P6. FIG. 6illustrates the voltage threshold distributions for the states as bellcurves. The corresponding tracking cell distributions are depicted bythe narrower bell-shaped curves 200 and 202. Because of the largethreshold voltage delta separating states P1 and P6, it will be highlyimprobable for a sufficient number of tracking cells to be mis-detected(interchanging a higher threshold voltage range for a lower and/or viceversa), without the data portion being massively corrupted as well.

In embodiments with a number of states other than eight, the trackingcells may use different states to store data. For example, in a devicewith four states (e.g. P0, P1, P2, P3), the tracking cells may storedata in states P1 and P3. In an embodiment with a device having sixteenstates (P0, P1, P2, . . . , P14, P15), the tracking cells may store datain states P1 and P14. Other states can also be used instead of or inaddition to the states noted above.

One question that arises is where should the corresponding trackingcells be placed within the data stream. Keeping them at the tail endeliminates a need to shift them out on an ongoing basis, whichpotentially saves a small amount of time during read but potentiallyrequires shifting out the entire sector of data to read the trackinginformation when needed. This also tends to physically bunch up thetracking cells in a localized area of the sector, making it vulnerableto localized variation. Physically disbursing the tracking cellsthroughout the sector improves the ability to reflect local variationswithin a sector, but is cumbersome to manage and use. As with the tailend case, placing the tracking cells at the front end will also tend tophysically bunch them, and they will be included in the read pass forevery read operation, whether needed or not. However, in one embodiment,the tracking cells are also used for encoding the data rotation state.When using the tracking cells to encode the data rotation, the trackingcells should be read during each read process. Therefore, it makes senseto put them at the front of the data stream, as depicted in FIG. 9. Notethat it is possible to both uniformly disperse these tracking cellsphysically within the sector while still providing front end trackingcell reading by architecting the array decoding to reflect such anembodiment.

Each of the tracking cells stores data in either state P1 or P6. Thatis, the threshold voltage level is placed at either P1 or P6. Whenpairing up to adjacent cells (e.g. in one embodiment, adjacent floatinggates), they are programmed so that one of the pair is in state P1 andthe other of the pair is in state P6. As such, the pair can either havetwo orientations: 16 or 61. When the pair is at 16, then the pair isconsidered to be logic 0. When the pair is at 61, the pair is consideredto be logic 1. Thus, a pair of tracking cells is used to form a bit ofrotation encoding data (either 0 or 1). A set of three pairs forms threebits of rotation encoding data suitable for storing an indication of oneof eight possible rotation schemes. For example, set 260 includes threebits of rotation encoding data. The first bit in set 260 is 16, which islogic 0; the second bit in set 260 is 61, which is logic 1; and thethird bit in set 260 is 16, which is logic 0. Therefore, set 260 storesthe code 010 (decimal value of 2 or rotation 2). In other embodiments,more or less than eight rotations can be used and, therefore, the codeidentifying the rotation scheme can be formed by more than or less thanthree bits (e.g., two bits, five bits, etc.) and more than or less thansix tracking cells and/or floating gates. In one implementation, thefloating gates can store 16 levels/states and 4 (or a different number)of rotation bits are used. In one embodiment, each of the sets areredundant of each other. By using redundancy, individual errors in thetracking cells can be remedied. Thus, sets 262, 264 and 266 all store010. The three bits and six tracking cells within a particular set arenot redundant of each other since all three bits (and associated sixcells) are needed to identify the code for the rotation scheme.

The three bits stored by each set represents a code indicating aparticular rotation scheme. As discussed above, FIG. 8 depicts the eightvarious rotation schemes in one embodiment of the present invention.FIG. 10 depicts how the various codes stored within the sets 260, 262,264 and 266 are assigned to each of the rotation states. Thus, a datapattern of 161616 corresponds to rotation 0, 161661 corresponds torotation encoding 1, 166116 corresponds to rotation encoding 2, 166161corresponds to rotation encoding 3, 611616 corresponds to rotationencoding 4, 611661 corresponds to rotation encoding 5, 616116corresponds to rotation encoding 6 and 616161 corresponds to rotationencoding 7.

FIG. 11 is a flowchart describing the process for programming the cellsof a sector, including programming the tracking cells. The technologyfor programming an individual cell has been described above. FIG. 11 isa device level process. In step 342, user data is received. That is, thecontroller will receive data from a host system. In another instance,data to be written can be internally sourced, dictated by internal needssuch as scrubbing, wear leveling or garbage collection. In step 344, thecontroller determines the rotation scheme to use. As discussed above,rotation schemes can be chosen sequentially, randomly, pseudo-randomlyor by any other suitable scheme. In step 346, the appropriate physicalstates associated with the selected rotation scheme are determined foreach of the tracking cells. That is, based on the rotation code (seeFIG. 10), the appropriate data pattern is assigned to the sets oftracking cells. In one embodiment, the tracking cells are not rotated.In step 348, the controller determines the physical state for each datavalue to be programmed. That is, using the table of FIG. 8, each of thelogical states for each data value is assigned to a physical state for aparticular memory cell. In some embodiments, the physical states for thedata is computed dynamically as the data is being transmitted to memory.

In step 350, a “data load” command is issued by the controller. In step352, address data is provided to the appropriate decoders from thecontroller. In step 354, program data is input to the memory array,biasing the word lines and bit lines appropriately, the data andaddresses having been latched to establish the selected bit lines, wordlines and steering gates. In step 356, a “program” command is issued bythe controller.

In step 360, a program operation is performed. In many embodiments, aprogramming voltage is divided into many pulses. The magnitude of pulsesis increased with each pulse by a predetermined step size. In theperiods between the pulses, verify operations are carried out. That is,the program level of each cell being programmed in parallel is readbetween each programming pulse to determine whether it is at least equalto its data associated verify level. For example, if the thresholdvoltage is being raised to 2.5 volts, then the verify process willdetermine whether the threshold voltage is at least 2.5 volts. Once itis determined that the threshold voltage of a given memory cell hasreached or exceeded the verify level, the programming voltage is removedfrom that cell terminating further programming. Programming of othercells still being written to in parallel continues until they in turnreach their verify levels, whereupon their programming is terminated.

In step 358 of FIG. 11, the programming voltage (Vpgm) is initialized tothe starting pulse condition and a program counter PC is initialized at0. In step 360, the first Vpgm pulse is applied. In step 362, thethreshold levels of the selected memory cells are verified. If it isdetected that the target threshold voltage of a selected cell hasreached its appropriate level, as determined by its associated data,then further programming for that cell is further inhibited. If it isdetermined that the threshold voltage has not reached the appropriatelevel, then programming of that cell will not be inhibited. Thus, if theall-verify status (step 364) indicates that all cells have reached theirappropriate threshold level, then a status of pass will be reported instep 366. If all cells have not been verified to reach the appropriatethreshold voltages, then in step 368 the program counter is checkedagainst the program limit value. One example of a program limit value is20. If the program counter is not less than 20, then the program processhas failed and the status of “FAIL” is reported in step 370. If theprogram counter is less than 20, then the program voltage level isincreased by the step size and the program counter is incremented instep 372. After step 372, the process loops back to step 360 to applythe next programming voltage pulse.

Once programmed, memory cells of array 11 can be read according to theprocess of FIG. 12. In step 400, the read operation begins with normalcompare points. A compare point is a voltage threshold level that istypically set midway between two voltage threshold states and is used todistinguish between the states above and below that level. For example,FIG. 6 shows compare points as heavily shaded gray lines at 700 mV;1,300 mV; 1,900 mV; 2,500 mV; 3,100 mV; 3,700 mV and 4,300 mV. Inaddition, there is an option to specify whether to force a multi-bitcorrection attempt when the data quality is low after tracking cellprocessing, as will be described in more detail below. This option canbe specified by the host, by the controller or preprogrammed into thememory system.

In step 402 of FIG. 12, the local address is determined. That is, thecontroller received or accessed a logical address (or addresses) fordata to be read. These addresses are converted to physical addresses inthe particular memory array or arrays. In step 404, the boolean variableTrackingDone is set to False. In step 418, the tracking cells are read.More information about reading tracking cells will be described below.In step 420, the rotation scheme is computed and in step 422 anassociated quality gauge is determined (or updated). More informationabout computing rotation and determining/updating the quality gauge willbe discussed below. In step 424, it is determined whether the data ishigh quality or low quality based on the quality gauge (describedbelow). If the quality gauge indicates low quality data, then theprocess proceeds to step 470 (discussed below). If the quality gaugeindicates high quality data, then in step 426 the user data and theerror correction codes are read using the computed rotation to establishthe logical data from that which has been read physically. That is, theuser data is decoded according to the rotation scheme determined in step420. According to standard methods known in the art, the controllergenerates ECC syndromes for the data read process. In step 428, theseECC syndromes are analyzed to determine whether there are any errors inthe data. If the ECC does not find any errors (step 430), then the readprocess is done and is successful. The data read is reported back to thehost from the controller, if the request was from the host. If the ECCprocess determines that an error exists (step 430), then in step 440 thecontroller attempts a single bit correction process. That is, usingmethods known to those skilled in the art, ECC is used to correct asingle bit of data that is in error. If the single bit correctionprocess is successful (step 442), then the corrected data is optionally(as set by an option bit) queued for rewrite (step 444). The readprocess is then considered a success, the data is reported back to thehost (as needed) and the corrected data is optionally re-written to thememory array. Note that the use of ECC with reading data is well knownin the art. The present invention will work with many ECC schemes knownin the art.

If the single bit correction process is not successful (e.g. becausethere are multiple errors), then it is determined whether tracking cellprocessing has been done by testing the boolean variable TrackingDone instep 450. If the variable TrackingDone is set to True (that means thattracking cell processing has been completed), then the process attemptsa multi-bit correction process in step 452. The present invention willwork with multi-bit correction processes known in the art. If themultiple bit correction technique is successful (step 454), then thecorrected data is queued for re-write, the read process is consideredsuccessful and the data read (and corrected) is returned to the host (asneeded). If the multi-bit correction process is not successful (step454), then the read process is considered a failure and treatedaccordingly (e.g. if the host is expecting this data, then the hostreceives an error message).

If in step 450, it is determined that tracking cell processing was notdone (because the boolean variable TrackingDone was set at False), thenthe controller will perform tracking cell processing in step 460.Tracking cell processing includes processing the tracking cells todetermine a new set of compare points. More information about step 460will be described below with respect to FIG. 15. In step 462, theexisting compare points will be adjusted based on the results of step460 and the Boolean variable TrackingDone will be set to True in step464. After step 464, the process loops back to step 418 and the systemattempts to read the tracking cells and data cells again using the newcompare points. Note that the new compare points can be used temporarilyor permanently. Additionally, the new compare points can be used for thecurrent sector under consideration only, or for the current sector aswell as other sectors. For example, in one embodiment, if a set ofsectors are treated as a group (e.g. a file) and if one sector's comparepoints are adjusted, then the compare points for all of the sectors inthe group will be adjusted.

If the quality gauge indicates low quality data in step 424, then theprocess proceeds to step 470. In step 470, it is determined whethertracking cell processing has been done by testing the boolean variableTrackingDone. If TrackingDone is set to True, then the read processfails. If TrackingDone is set to False, then tracking cell processing isperformed in step 460. Additionally, at step 470, a variable can be setto force the process to perform multi-but correction in step0 452.

Step 418 of FIG. 12 includes reading the tracking cells. To do so, thevoltage level on the appropriate steering gate is stepped through theseven compare points, as described with respect to FIG. 6, so that sevenread operations are performed. In each read operation, the voltage ofthe steering gate is stepped to a different level so that the trackingcell is tested at each of the compare points. At each compare point itis determined whether the particular tracking cell turned on or remainedoff. That is, whether current flowed or did not flow. At the end of theseven read operations, the data from the read operations is shifted tothe controller. The controller then transforms that data according tothe table of FIG. 13. The table in FIG. 13 indicates what state aparticular memory cell is in based on data from each of the seven readoperations. For example, if the memory cell turned on for all seven readoperations, then the memory cell is in physical state P0. If the memorycell was off during the first pass and on during the remaining six readoperations, then the memory cell is in state P1. If the memory cell wasoff during the first two read operations and on during the remainingread operations, then the memory cell is in state P2, and so on. Asanticipated, when no error exists, each tracking cell is found eitherdata states P1 or P6, as originally written. In other embodiments, otherstates can be used. Note that the read process described above usesvoltage sense; however, it is understood that a current sense or othermethods of reading (or sensing) are also within the scope of theinvention.

FIG. 14 is flowchart describing one embodiment of a process forcomputing the rotation scheme (step 420 of FIG. 12). In step 520, thecontroller accesses data from a pair of tracking cells (in oneembodiment, a pair of floating gates—e.g. see FIGS. 3-4). In step 522,its is determined whether one of the pair of tracking cells is in stateP1 and the other of the pair of tracking cells is in state P6. If so,then the bit for those two tracking cells is set appropriately in step524, as described with respect to FIG. 10. That is, if the firsttracking cell is in P1 and the second tracking cell is in P6, then thecorresponding rotation bit is set to 0. Alternatively, if the first isin P6 and the second is in P1, then the rotation bit is set to logic 1.In step 526, it is determined whether there are any more pairs of cellsto process. If there are more pairs to process, then the method loopsback to step 520. Note that in one embodiment, when making thedetermination that the cells are in states P1 and P6 (see step 5522),the system may accept states other than state P1 or state P6. Forexample, states P0, P1, P2 and P3 (or a subset of those states) may betreated as states P1 and states P4, P5, P6 and P7 (or a subset of thosestates) may be treated as states P6.

If in step 522 it is determined that the pair of cells does not have onecell in state P1 and the other cell in state P6, then in step 530 it isdetermined whether the two cells are in different states. If the twocells are in the same state, then there is an error that is recorded instep 532. Step 532 could include adding data to a progressive errormeasure after storing specific data for this particular comparison. Thedata stored in step 532 is used for the quality gauge. If the two cellsare in different states, then in step 534, the controller assigns thecell with the lower threshold voltage to be in state P1 (step 534) andassigns the cell with the higher threshold voltage to be in state P6(step 536). In step 538, the error is recorded and operation returns tostep 524. Step 538 could include a recording of the number of cells thatare not in states P1 or P6 and/or the delta that these particular cellsdeviated from state P1 and/or P6.

When there are no more pairs to process (step 526), then the system atthat point will have processed 12 pairs and, thus, will have 12 bits ofdata. The 12 bits of data are grouped into four sets of data organizedas depicted in FIG. 9. In step 550, the rotation for each set isdetermined by comparing the three bits to the table of FIG. 10. Arotation is separately determined for each set. The sets are thencompared against each other. If all four sets have the same rotationcode (step 552), then that rotation code is stored in step 554. If thefour sets do not agree, then the dispute is resolved in step 556 and theresolved rotation code is then stored in step 554, after the errorinformation is stored in step 558.

There are many ways to resolve the dispute. One way is to vote, wherethe majority wins. For example, if three out of four sets determinedthat the code was one particular value and the fourth set determined adifferent particular value, the dispute would be resolved by proceedingwith the code chosen by the three sets. An alternative method is tomatch up bits to see which bit is off and then to do a vote by bits. Forexample, if the first two bits are the same on all four sets, but thethird bit is different in one of the sets, then assume that the thirdbit is the value determined by the three sets with a common value.Alternatively, the results can be done by cells, where if five of thecells are the same for all of the sets and the sixth cell differs in oneof the sets, ignore the one differing cell.

Another embodiment for determining the rotation is to simply do one readfor each tracking cell with a compare point that is halfway betweenphysical state P1 and physical state P6. Assume that all cells that turnon are in P1 and all cells that remain off are in P6. Where both cellsof a rotation pair are resolved to be in the same state, the system canstep through various intermediate comparison points with greaterresolution until it finds one comparison point where one of the cellsturns on and the other cells turns off.

FIG. 14 shows boxes 532, 538 and 558 where error is recorded. This erroris used to create the quality gauge. Based on the data recorded in steps532, 538 and 558, the quality gauge is determined in step 422 of FIG.12. In one embodiment, the quality gauge measures the number of errors,the amount of error past a threshold, etc. For example, in oneembodiment, the quality gauge may store an indication of the numbers oftracking cells that are not in state P1 or P6, or the quality gauge maystore the cumulative or average amount that such cells differ from P1 orP6. Alternatively, the quality gauge may store multiple values, such aseach of the differences from P1 and P6 for those tracking cells not inP1 or P6. Other data or measures of error may also be reflected in thequality gauge. In another embodiment, the quality gauge is set to one ofa number of pre-set states based on the number or magnitude of errors.The system can use the quality gauge to trigger behavior when thequality gauge meets predefined criteria, such as being below athreshold, above a threshold or satisfying a rule/property, depending onthe data measured.

Despite the forgiving capability of determining rotation in the presenceof wide shifts and data states/margins, the actual states read from thetracking cells could be substantially off from the target states of P1and P6. By determining how many cells differ from the target, oneembodiment of the quality gauge is established. When this quality gaugeexceeds a predetermined threshold (or progressive set of thresholdvalues), a warning condition (or series of progressive warningconditions) can be triggered in response to the quality gauge. In oneembodiment, the memory device will not perform a response to the warningcondition or error gauge (e.g. it will do nothing different and the readprocess will continue). In other embodiments, the memory device willperform a response to the warning conditions; for example, the processcan immediately move to the tracking cell processing (see step 424 ofFIG. 12) to adjust the compare points and re-start the read process.Alternatively, the entire read process can be aborted (e.g. via step 470going to the Done/Failure block). In another alternative, ECC parameterscan be changed. For example, the system can choose not to do multi-bitcorrection if the quality gauge is above threshold. One example of athreshold that triggers a warning condition is if the number of trackingcells not in either states P1 or P6 is greater than 1. This would allowone random failing bit (e.g. due to random noise) to be passed over.However, greater than one failure would be flagged, since the likelihoodof two such random, uncorrelated errors is highly improbable, indicativeof a more widespread failing condition existing within the sector. Inother embodiment, the threshold could be 2 (or another number of)tracking cells not in either states P1 or P6.

FIG. 15 is a flowchart describing one embodiment of a process ofperforming tracking cell processing (see steps 460 and 462 of FIG. 12).In step 600, the controller will cause read operations to be performedon each of the tracking cells for each threshold voltage within apredetermined range associated with physical state P1. For example, FIG.6 shows threshold voltages 210 which are associated with state P1. Thesefifteen voltages include threshold voltages inside the expected range ofstate P1, as well as below and above that range. In other embodiments, agreater resolution can be used so that more threshold voltages will betested or a lesser resolution can be used testing fewer thresholdvoltages to save time. Other embodiments can increase or decrease therange at the resolution depicted in FIG. 6. In one embodiment, all ofthe tracking cells will have read operations for each of those thresholdvoltages. In another embodiment, only those tracking cells thought to bein P1 will have read operations performed on them for the thresholdvoltages associated with P1. For example, there will be 15 readoperations on each tracking cell which is thought be in state P1. Inanother embodiment, all of the tracking cells will have read operationsfor each of those threshold voltages, however, those tracking cellsthought not to be in P1 will have the results of the read operationsdiscarded. In step 602, the controller will cause the performance ofread operations for each of the tracking cells for each thresholdvoltage within a range associated with state P6. For example, FIG. 6shows fifteen threshold voltages 212 in the range associated with stateP6. Similar embodiment alternatives discussed above with respect to P1also apply to P6. For example, a higher resolution can be achieved withmore than fifteen threshold voltages and lower resolution can also beused with less than fifteen threshold voltages. In one embodiment, aswith P1, every tracking cell will be subjected to fifteen readoperations in step 602. In another embodiment, only those tracking cellsthought to be in P6 will be read in step 602.

In step 604 of FIG. 15, the controller will determine the actualthreshold voltage for each of the tracking cells based on the readoperations of steps 600 and 602. The controller will look for the firstthreshold voltage where the cell turned on. At the end of step 604, thecontroller will have 24 threshold voltages, one for each of the 24tracking cells. In step 606, the controller will determine arepresentative threshold voltage for state P1. In step 608, thecontroller will determine a representative threshold voltage for stateP6. The representative threshold voltage for each of the two states canbe calculated using one of a variety of well known mathematical means.For example, a distribution for each state population can be establishedand its mean determined. Alternatively, linear regression can be used.For simplicity, a simple average for each population can be performed.In one alternative, a simple average is calculated but outliers arerejected. Outliers can be rejected by a filtering process or simply byremoving the highest and lowest threshold voltage for each of the twopopulation (e.g., for P1 and P6).

In step 610, seven new compare points are created based on the tworepresentative threshold voltages. These compare points are establishedby means of interpolation and extrapolation to arrive at a best estimateof the optimum compare points. There are many means for determining thecompare points. In one example, the controller can determine theincrease in representative threshold voltage for states P1 and P6,average those two numbers to determine an average increase and thenraise the existing compare points by that average increase. For example,if it is determined that the representative threshold voltage for statesP1 and P6 increased by average increase of 100 mV, then the default setof compare points (700, 1300, 1900, 2500, 3100, 3700, 4300 and 4900)will be adjusted by raising them 100 mV to new levels (800, 1400, 2000,2600, 3200, 3800, 4400 and 5000) and the data be read against these newcompare points. In another embodiment, the system can evaluate therepresentative threshold voltages for each of the eight states,determine a relationship among those eight representative thresholdvoltages, insert the new values for states P1 and P6 into thatrelationship to determine new threshold voltages for each of the eightstates. With the new threshold voltages, new compare points can becalculated between the states, by establishing the closest read voltagelevels to the midpoints between adjacent states. Alternatively, arelationship can be determined between the compare points and therepresentative threshold voltages of states P1 and P6 so that pluggingin new values for the representative threshold voltages for P1 and P6changes the compare points. Other algorithms can also be used.

In one embodiment, the new compare points are not used exclusively forthe failing read sector that had just triggered the tracking cellprocessing, but also for subsequent reads as well (e.g. reads to otherlocations in the same memory during the same read or a future readsession, which may or may not require the same corrections). In such ascenario, the compare points of choice will be the corrected values inplace of the original reference values. Alternatively, two sets ofconditions, one using default values and the other using the mostrecently established corrected values, can be concurrently maintained bytwo reference set of registers and associated read modes. On readfailure with one mode, re-read can be implemented using the other readmode/reference conditions as the first step in attempting data recovery.The mode to be attempted first can be optimally established based onlikely success (e.g., either statistically based on characterization, ordynamically based on success history). Note that the above processdescribes fifteen steps during the tracking cell processing. Otherembodiments use more or less than fifteen steps; for example, theprocess can use 20 steps with a 25 mV-volt resolution and 500 mVstate-to-state separation. In one embodiment, the tracking cellprocessing would only be performed if the quality gauge indicated lowquality data or if the ECC failed.

Note that in one embodiment the system can independently read out aheader or header stack (e.g. in preparation for an internal data copyoperation) where the user data portion must be transferred intact withinthe memory. In such a situation, prior to rewriting the user data (e.g.copy it elsewhere), it is necessary to first extract the existing datarotation, as described above. Then, write the new header plus user dataaccording to the extracted rotation.

The processes described above are performed by or at the direction ofthe controller. In one embodiment, all or most processes are supportableby firmware. Thus, code (e.g. firmware) can be embedded within thecontroller on a processor/controller readable storage medium such asflash memory, RAM, etc. for programming the controller. The code canalso be stored in a memory element in communication with the Controller.Alternatively, specialized hardware can be included within thecontroller to perform many of those functions. Note that the termcontroller is somewhat generic for a processing device within the memorysystem that performs the functions described herein.

In one embodiment, all the methods discussed above are performed in realtime. Quantifying the actual performance impact of using tracking cellsvaries based on the actual implementation. In the case of computing therotation, the performance impact is minimal in that all of theassociated operations can be done in a pipelined fashion at fullprocessor speeds, with the tracking cell data being part of the normaldata stream flow. Alternatively, with the implementations to invoketracking cell processing described above, thirty sequential reads andmany shift outs are required plus the time required for the controllerto do the tracking cell processing computations, followed by a loadingof the new read conditions and the final full read. It may be possibleto reduce the ranges over which the threshold voltage reads is performedor be more clever in the threshold voltage read search algorithm (e.g.via a binary search for each population threshold midpoint).Nevertheless, given its rare incidence, the overall performance impactis anticipated to be minimal and far preferable to outright read failureor mis-correction.

The above examples are provided with respect to a specific flash memorysystem. However, the principles of the present invention haveapplication to other types of flash memory systems as well as othertypes of memories (e.g. other integrated circuit/solidstate/semiconductor memories), including those currently existing andthose contemplated to use new technology being developed. The presentinvention is also applicable to non-electronic memories, includingoptical, magnetic and mechanical systems.

The foregoing detailed description of the invention has been presentedfor purposes of illustration and description. It is not intended to beexhaustive or to limit the invention to the precise form disclosed. Manymodifications and variations are possible in light of the aboveteaching. The described embodiments were chosen in order to best explainthe principles of the invention and its practical application to therebyenable others skilled in the art to best utilize the invention invarious embodiments and with various modifications as are suited to theparticular use contemplated. It is intended that the scope of theinvention be defined by the claims appended hereto.

1. A method for operating a memory system, comprising: determiningphysical states of storage elements in different first and second setsof storage elements in a portion of the memory system; and determininglogical states of the storage elements in the second set of storageelements based on logical state-to-physical state assignments which areidentified by the determined physical states of the storage elements inthe first set of storage elements, threshold voltages of the physicalstates of the storage elements in the second set of storage elements arefurther apart than threshold voltages of the physical states of thestorage elements in the first set of storage elements.
 2. The method ofclaim 1, wherein: the physical states of the storage elements in thefirst set of storage elements are associated with bits which identifythe logical state-to-physical state assignments.
 3. The method of claim1, wherein: the physical states of pairs of the storage elements in thefirst set of storage elements are associated with bits which identifythe logical state-to-physical state assignments.
 4. The method of claim1, wherein: the threshold voltages of the physical states of the storageelements in the first set of storage elements are spaced apart, at aminimum, at least by a voltage corresponding to a spacing between twonon-adjacent physical states of the physical states of storage elementsin the second set of storage elements.
 5. A method for operating amemory system, comprising: performing read operations on trackingstorage elements in a portion of the memory system, threshold voltagesof physical states of the tracking storage elements are further apartthan threshold voltages of physical states of non-tracking storageelements in the portion of the memory system; and determining, based onthe read operations, an extent to which the tracking storage elementsare errored.
 6. The method of claim 5, wherein: the threshold voltagesof the physical states of the tracking storage elements are spacedapart, at a minimum, at least by a voltage corresponding to a spacingbetween two non-adjacent physical states of the physical states of thenon-tracking storage elements.
 7. The method of claim 5, wherein: thedetermining an extent to which the tracking storage elements are erroredcomprises determining whether the tracking storage elements are in a setof preset tracking states.
 8. The method of claim 5, further comprising:determining a quality gauge based on the extent to which the trackingstorage elements are errored.
 9. The method of claim 8, furthercomprising: responding to the quality gauge by at least one of abortinga read process, changing parameters of an error correction code process,and determining a new set of compare values for distinguishing states ofthe non-tracking storage elements.
 10. A memory system, comprising:different first and second sets of storage elements; and at least onecontrol which determines physical states of storage elements in thedifferent first and second sets of storage elements, and determineslogical states of the storage elements in the second set of storageelements based on logical state-to-physical state assignments which areidentified by the determined physical states of the storage elements inthe first set of storage elements, threshold voltages of the physicalstates of the storage elements in the second set of storage elements arefurther apart than threshold voltages of the physical states of thestorage elements in the first set of storage elements.
 11. The memorysystem of claim 10, wherein: the physical states of the storage elementsin the first set of storage elements are associated with bits whichidentify the logical state-to-physical state assignments.
 12. The memorysystem of claim 10, wherein: the physical states of pairs of the storageelements in the first set of storage elements are associated with bitswhich identify the logical state-to-physical state assignments.
 13. Thememory system of claim 10, wherein: the threshold voltages of thephysical states of the storage elements in the first set of storageelements are spaced apart, at a minimum, at least by a voltagecorresponding to a spacing between two non-adjacent physical states ofthe physical states of storage elements in the second set of storageelements.
 14. A memory system, comprising: tracking storage elements andnon-tracking storage elements, threshold voltages of physical states ofthe tracking storage elements are further apart than threshold voltagesof physical states of the non-tracking storage elements; and at leastone control circuit which performs read operations on the trackingstorage elements and determines, based on the read operations, an extentto which the tracking storage elements are errored.
 15. The memorysystem of claim 14, wherein: the threshold voltages of the physicalstates of the tracking storage elements are spaced apart, at a minimum,at least by a voltage corresponding to a spacing between twonon-adjacent physical states of the physical states of the non-trackingstorage elements.
 16. The memory system of claim 14, wherein: the atleast one control circuit determines an extent to which the trackingstorage elements are errored by determining whether the tracking storageelements are in a set of preset tracking states.
 17. The memory systemof claim 14, wherein: the at least one control circuit determines aquality gauge based on the extent to which the tracking storage elementsare errored.
 18. The memory system of claim 17, wherein: the at leastone control circuit responds to the quality gauge by aborting a readprocess.
 19. The memory system of claim 17, wherein: the at least onecontrol circuit responds to the quality gauge by changing parameters ofan error correction code process.
 20. The memory system of claim 17,wherein: the at least one control circuit responds to the quality gaugeby determining a new set of compare values for distinguishing states ofthe non-tracking storage elements.